Loyola University Chicago

Healthy Homes & Healthy Communities

Air Quality

Air Pollution

What is it?

The EPA has national air quality standards for 6 common air pollutants: Carbon Monoxide [CO], Ozone [O3, O3], Lead [Pb], Nitrogen Dioxide [NO2, NO2], Particulate Matter [PM], and Sulfur Dioxide [SO2, SO2]. (EPA)

  • Also known as “criteria pollutants.” (EPA)
    • In April 2014, WHO issued new information estimating that outdoor air pollution was responsible for the deaths of some 3.7 million people under the age of 60 in 2012. (WHO[2])

What local (city and state) policies are in place to regulate and/or prevent this toxin?

“Under the Clean Air Act, EPA establishes primary air quality standards to protect public health, including the health of “sensitive” populations such as people with asthma, children, and older adults.” (EPA)

“States are required to adopt enforceable plans to achieve and maintain air quality meeting the air quality standards. State plans also must control emission that drift across state lines and harm air quality in downwind states.” (EPA)

Primary standards protect health; secondary standards protect the public welfare. (EPA)

What interventions are effective?

Indoor Air Pollution (WHO):

Interventions can be classified according to the level at which they are effective:

  • Interventions on the source of pollution:
    • The largest reductions in indoor air pollution can be achieved by switching from solid fuels (biomass, coal) to cleaner and more efficient fuels and energy technologies such as: liquid petroleum gas (LPG), biogas, producer gas, electricity, solar power. (WHO)
    • In poor, rural communities where access to alternative fuels is very limited and biomass remains the most practical fuel, pollution levels can be lowered significantly by using improved stoves. These stoves, provided they are adequately designed, installed and maintained, are effective in reducing smoke because of better combustion, lower emission levels and potentially also shorter cooking times. (WHO)
  • Interventions to the living environment:
    • Improved ventilation of the cooking and living area can contribute significantly to reducing exposure to smoke. There are a number of ways to achieve better ventilation of the living environment including: chimneys, smoke hoods (with flues), eaves spaces, and enlarged and repositioned windows (cooking window). (WHO)
  • Interventions to user behavior:
    • Changes in user behavior can also play a role in reducing pollution and exposure levels. For example, drying fuel wood before use improves combustion and decreases smoke production. Keeping young children away from smoke reduces exposure of this most vulnerable age group to health-damaging pollutants. (WHO)

Air quality in most cities worldwide that monitor outdoor (ambient) air pollution fails to meet WHO guidelines for safe levels, putting people at additional risk of respiratory disease and other health problems. (WHO[2])

  • Only 12% of the people living in cities reporting on air quality reside in cities where this complies with WHO air quality guideline levels. About half of the urban population being monitored is exposed to air pollution that is at least 2.5 times higher than the levels WHO recommends—putting those people at additional risk of serious, long-term health problems. (WHO[2])
  • In most cities where there is enough data to compare the situation today with previous years, air pollution is getting worse. Many factors contribute to this increase, including reliance on fossil fuels such as coal fired power plants, dependence on private transport motor vehicles, inefficient use of energy in buildings, and the use of biomass for cooking and heating. (WHO[2])
    • But some cities are making notable improvements—demonstrating that air quality can be improved by implementing policy measures such as banning the use of coal for “space heating” in buildings, using renewable or “clean” fuels for electricity production, and improving efficiency of motor vehicle engines. (WHO[2])

Sources

Carbon Monoxide

What is it? 

Carbon Monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless gas emitted from combustion processes. (EPA)  

What causes it? 

The majority of CO emissions to ambient air come from mobile sources. (EPA)

  • Illinois Carbon monoxide emissions by source sector [short tons] (2011) (EPA) http://1.usa.gov/1o7nqRY
    • Mobile (1,425,400 total emissions) 
    • Fuel Combustion (131,351 total emissions) 
    • Biogenics (90,196 total emissions) 
    • Fires (79,406 total emissions) 
    • Industrial Processes (48,566 total emissions) 
    • Miscellaneous (25,544 total emissions) 
    • Solvent (249  total emissions)
  • Cook County Carbon Monoxide emissions by source sector [short tons] (2011) (EPA) http://1.usa.gov/1o7nqRY
    • Mobile (409,404 total emissions)
    • Fuel Combustion (22,151 total emissions)
    • Industrial Processes (7,989 total emissions)
    • Miscellaneous (3,026 total emissions)
    • Fires (1,266 total emissions)
    • Biogenics (922 total emissions)
    • Solvent (79 total emissions) 

How does it affect health?

CO can cause harmful health effects by reducing oxygen delivery to the body’s organs (like the heart and brain) and tissues. At extremely high levels, CO can cause death. (EPA)

Exposure to CO can reduce the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood. People with several types of heart disease already have a reduced capacity for pumping oxygenated blood to the heart, which can cause them to experience myocardial ischemia (reduced oxygen to the heart), often accompanied by chest pain (angina), when exercising or under increased stress. For these people, short-term CO exposure further affects their body’s already compromised ability to respond to the increased oxygen demands of exercise or exertion. (EPA)

What local (city and state) policies are in place to regulate and/or prevent this toxin?

EPA set a 8-hour primary standard at 9 parts per million (ppm)  and a 1-hour secondary standard at 35 ppm.

  • These are not to be exceeded more than once per year. (EPA)

What interventions are effective?

Everywhere in the country has air quality that meets the current CO standards. Most sites have measured concentrations below the national standards since the early 1990s, since which time, improvements in motor vehicle emissions controls have contributed to significant reductions in ambient concentrations. (EPA)

Sources

 

Ozone

What is it? 

Ozone contributes to what we typically experience as “smog” or haze, which still occurs most frequently in the summertime, but can occur throughout the year in some southern and mountain regions. (EPA) 

Where is it found?

Ozone is found in two regions of the Earth’s atmosphere—at ground level and in the upper regions of the atmosphere. While upper atmospheric ozone protects the earth from the sun’s harmful rays, ground level ozone is the main component of smog. (EPA) 

What causes it?

Tropospheric, or ground level ozone, is not emitted directly into the air, but is created by chemical reactions between oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and volatile organic compounds. (VOC) (EPA)

  • Emissions from industrial facilities and electric utilities, motor vehicle exhaust, gasoline vapors, and chemical solvents are some of the major sources of NOx and VOC. (EPA)
    • Illinois NOx emissions by source sector [short tons] (2011) (EPA) http://1.usa.gov/SkN2gH 
      • Mobile (321,037 total emissions)
      • Fuel Combustion (148,753 total emissions)
      • Biogenics (34,905 total emissions)
      • Industrial Processes (29,401 total emissions)
      • Miscellaneous (3,313 total emissions)
      • Fires (1,745 total emissions)
      • Solvent (333 total emissions)
    • Cook County NOx emissions by source sector [short tons] (2011) (EPA)
      • Mobile (83,127 total emissions)
      • Fuel Combustion (23,567 total emissions)
      • Industrial Processes (1,407 total emissions)
      • Miscellaneous (740 total emissions)
      • Biogenics (224 total emissions)
      • Solvent (108 total emissions)
      • Fires (23 total emissions)

    • Illinois VOC emissions by source sector [short tons] (2011) (EPA) http://1.usa.gov/1vIkxsO
      • Biogenics (479,020 total emissions)
      • Mobile (140,927 total emissions)
      • Solvent (120,455 total emissions)
      • Industrial Processes (57,607 total emissions)
      • Miscellaneous (24,492 total emissions)
      • Fuel Combustion (17,078 total emissions)
      • Fires (16,184 total emissions)
    • Cook County VOC emissions by source sector [short tons] (2011) (EPA)
      • Solvent (37,936 total emissions)
      • Mobile (36,408 total emissions)
      • Biogenics (8,263 total emissions)
      • Miscellaneous (6,673 total emissions)
      • Industrial Processes (3,793 total emissions)
      • Fuel Combustion (2,375 total emissions)
      • Fires (300 total emissions)

Ozone is likely to reach unhealthy levels on hot sunny days in urban environments. Ozone can also be transported long distances by wind. For this reason, even rural areas can experience high ozone levels. (EPA) 

How does it affect health?

Ground level ozone-what we breathe-can harm our health. Even relatively low levels of ozone can cause health effects. People with lung disease, children, older adults, and people who are active outdoors may be particularly sensitive to ozone. (EPA)

Children are at greatest risk from exposure to ozone because their lungs are still developing and they are more likely to be active outdoors when ozone levels are high, which increases their exposure. (EPA)

Ozone also affects sensitive vegetation and ecosystems, including forests, parks, wildlife refuges and wilderness areas. (EPA)

Breathing ozone can trigger a variety of health problems including chest pain, coughing, throat irritation, and congestion. It can worsen bronchitis, emphysema, and asthma. Ground level ozone also can reduce lung function and inflame the linings of the lungs. Repeated exposure may permanently scar lung tissue. (EPA)

  • Research also indicates that ozone exposure may increase the risk of premature death from heart or lung disease. (EPA)

What local (city and state) policies are in place to regulate and/or prevent this toxin?

8-hour primary and secondary standard of 0.075 parts per million. (ppm)

  • Annual fourth-highest daily maximum 8 hour concentration, averaged over 3 years. (EPA)

What interventions are effective?

Reductions in air pollution can be achieved by a variety of methods including pollution prevention, control technologies, and control measures, and may be implemented through regulatory, market-based, or voluntary programs. (EPA)

  • Programs like “ozone action days” on which drives and businesses voluntarily take actions to reduce their emissions that form ground-level ozone. (EPA)

Sources

Lead

What is it?

Lead (Pb) is a metal found naturally in the environment as well as in manufactured products. (EPA) 

What causes it?

The major source of lead emissions have historically been from fuels in on-road motor vehicles (such as cars and trucks) and industrial sources. (EPA)

Today, the highest levels of lead in air are usually found near lead smelters. The major source of lead emissions to the air today are ore and metals processing and piston-engine aircraft operating on leaded aviation gasoline. (EPA)

  • Other stationary sources are waste incinerators, utilities, and lead-acid battery manufacturers. (EPA)
  • Illinois Lead emissions by source sector [short tons] (2011) (EPA) http://1.usa.gov/1jYg6QP
    • Mobile (14 total emissions)
    • Industrial Processes (12 total emissions)
    • Fuel Combustion (3 total emissions)
    • Miscellaneous (0 total emissions)
    • Solvent (0 total emissions)
  • Cook County Lead emissions by source sector [short tons] (2011) (EPA) http://1.usa.gov/1jYg6QP
    • Industrial Processes (2 total emissions)
    • Mobile (1 total emissions)
    • Fuel Combustion (1 total emissions)
    • Miscellaneous (0 total emissions)
    • Solvent (0 total emissions)

How does it affect health?

Once taken into the body, lead distributes throughout the body in the blood and is accumulated in the bones. Depending on the level of exposure, lead can adversely affect the nervous system, kidney function, immune system, reproductive and developmental systems, and the cardiovascular system. (EPA)

Lead exposure also affects the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood. The lead effects most commonly encountered in current populations are neurological effects in children and cardiovascular effects (e.g. high blood pressure and heart disease) in adults. Infants and young children are especially sensitive to even low levels of lead, which may contribute to behavioral problems, learning deficits and lowered IQ. (EPA) 

What local (city and state) policies are in place to regulate and/or prevent this toxin?

Rolling 3 month average primary and secondary standard of 0.15 micrograms per cubic meter (mcg/m3).

  • Not to be exceeded. (EPA) 

What interventions are effective?

As a result of EPA’s regulatory efforts to remove lead from on-road motor vehicle gasoline, emissions of lead from the transportation sector dramatically declined by 95 percent between 1980 and 1999, and levels of lead in the air decreased by 94 percent between 1980 and 1999. (EPA) 

Sources

 

Nitrogen Dioxide

What is it?

Nitrogen dioxide is one of a group of highly reactive gasses known as “oxides of nitrogen” or “nitrogen oxides (NOx).” (EPA)

What causes it?

Nitrogen dioxide forms quickly from emissions from cars, trucks and buses, power plants, and off-road equipment. (EPA)

  • Illinois NOx emissions by source sector [short tons] (2011) (EPA) http://1.usa.gov/SkN2gH
    • Mobile (321,037 total emissions)
    • Fuel Combustion (148,753 total emissions)
    • Biogenics (34,905 total emissions)
    • Industrial Processes (29,401 total emissions)
    • Miscellaneous (3,313 total emissions)
    • Fires (1,745 total emissions)
    • Solvent (333 total emissions)
  • Cook County NOx emissions by source sector [short tons] (2011) (EPA) http://1.usa.gov/SkN2gH
    • Mobile (83,127 total emissions)
    • Fuel Combustion (23,567 total emissions)
    • Industrial Processes (1,407 total emissions)
    • Miscellaneous (740 total emissions)
    • Biogenics (224 total emissions)
    • Solvent (108 total emissions)
    • Fires (23 total emissions)

How does it affect health?

Current scientific evidence links short-term NO2 exposures, ranging from 30 minutes to 24 hours, with adverse respiratory effects including airway inflammation in healthy people and increased respiratory symptoms in people with asthma. (EPA)

NO2 concentrations in vehicles and near roadways are appreciably higher than those measured at monitors in the current network. In fact, in-vehicle concentrations can be 2-3 times higher than measured at nearby area-wide monitors. Near-roadway (within about 50 meters) concentrations of NO2 have been measured to be approximately 30 to 100% higher than the concentrations away from roadways. (EPA)

  • Individuals who spend time on or near major roadways can experience short-term NO2 exposures considerably higher than measured by the current network. Approximately 16% of U.S. housing units are located within 300 ft of a major highway, railroad, or airport (approximately 48 million people). This population likely includes a higher proportion of non-white and economically-disadvantaged people. (EPA)
  • NO2 exposure concentrations near roadways are of particular concern for susceptible individuals, including people with asthma, children, and the elderly. (EPA)

NOx react with ammonia, moisture, and other compounds to form small particles. These small particles penetrate deeply into sensitive parts of the lungs and can cause or worsen respiratory, such as emphysema and bronchitis, and can aggravate existing heart disease, leading to increased hospital admissions and premature death. (EPA)

What local (city and state) policies are in place to regulate and/or prevent this toxin?

1-hour primary standard of 100 parts per billion

  • 98th percentile, averaged over 3 years (EPA)

Annual primary and secondary standard of 53 ppb

  • Annual Mean (EPA)

What interventions are effective?

Emission control measures leading to reductions in NO2 can generally be expected to reduce population exposures to all gaseous NOx. This may have the important co-benefit of reducing the formation of ozone and fine particles; both of which pose significant public health threats. (EPA)

Sources

 

Particulate Matter

What is it?

“Particulate matter,” also known as particle pollution or PM, is a complex mixture of extremely small particles and liquid droplets. Particle pollution is made up of a number of components, including acids (such as nitrates and sulfates), organic chemicals, metals, and soil or dust particles. (EPA)

  • The size of particles is directly linked to their potential for causing health problems. EPA is concerned about particles that are 10 micrometers in diameter or smaller because those are the particles that generally pass through the throat and nose and enter the lungs. Once inhaled, these particles can affect the heart and lungs and cause serious health effects. (EPA)

PM10

  • “Inhalable coarse particles,” such as those found near roadways and dusty industries, are larger than 2.5 micrometers and smaller than 10 micrometers in diameter. (EPA)

PM2.5

  • “Fine particles,” such as those found in smoke and haze, are 2.5 micrometers in diameter and smaller. These particles can be directly emitted from sources such as forest fires, or they can form when gases emitted from power plants, industries and automobiles react in the air. (EPA)

Where is it found?

These particles come in many sizes and shapes and can be made up of hundreds of different chemicals.

  • Primary particles are emitted directly from a source, such as construction sites, unpaved roads, fields, smokestacks, or fires. (EPA)
  • Others form in complicated reactions in the atmosphere of chemicals such as sulfur dioxides and nitrogen oxides that are emitted from power plants, industries, and automobiles. These particles, known as secondary particles, make up most of the fine particle pollution in the country. (EPA)

What causes it?

PM2.5

  • Illinois PM2.5 emissions by source sector [short tons] (2011) (EPA) http://1.usa.gov/1hcW9pK
    • Agriculture (76,561 total emissions)
    • Dust (39,664 total emissions)
    • Fuel Combustion (21,408 total emissions)
    • Mobile (16,462 total emissions)
    • Miscellaneous (10,264 total emissions)
    • Industrial Processes (9,125 total emissions)
    • Fires (7,094 total emissions)
    • Solvent (170 total emissions)
  • Cook County PM2.5 emissions by source sector [short tons] (2011) (EPA) http://1.usa.gov/1hcW9pK
    • Dust (7,554 total emissions)
    • Mobile (4,035 total emissions)
    • Fuel Combustion (2,537 total emissions)
    • Miscellaneous (2,111 total emissions)
    • Industrial Processes (1,362 total emissions)
    • Fires (113 total emissions)
    • Solvent (76 total emissions)
    • Agriculture (0 total emissions)

PM10

  • Illinois PM10 emissions by source sector [short tons] (2011) (EPA) http://1.usa.gov/1hcW9pK
    • Agriculture (383,019 total emissions)
    • Dust (311,023 total emissions)
    • Fuel Combustion (24,909 total emissions)
    • Mobile (20,069 total emissions)
    • Industrial Processes (15,425 total emissions)
    • Miscellaneous (11,846 total emissions)
    • Fires (9,379 total emissions)
    • Solvent (187 total emissions)
  • Cook County PM10 emissions by source sector [short tons] (2011) (EPA) http://1.usa.gov/1hcW9pK
    • Dust (57,079 total emissions)
    • Mobile (5,085 total emissions)
    • Fuel Combustion (3,171 total emissions)
    • Miscellaneous (2,468 total emissions)
    • Industrial Processes (1,692 total emissions)
    • Fires (134 total emissions)
    • Solvent (85 total emissions)
    • Agriculture (0 total emissions)

How does it affect health?

Particle pollution—especially fine particles—contains microscopic solids or liquid droplets that are so small that they can get deep into the lungs and cause serious health problems. Numerous scientific studies have linked particle pollution exposure to a variety of problems, including:

  • Premature death in people with heart or lung disease
  • Nonfatal heart attacks
  • Irregular heartbeat
  • Aggravated asthma
  • Decreased lung function, and
  • Increased respiratory symptoms, such as irritation of the airways, coughing or difficulty breathing. (EPA)

Environmental effects:

  • Fine particles (PM2.5) are the main cause of reduced visibility (haze) in parts of the United States, including many of our treasured national parks and wilderness areas. (EPA)
  • Particles can be carried over long distances by wind and then settle on ground or water. The effects of this settling include: making lakes and streams acidic; changing the nutrient balance in coastal waters and large river basins; depleting the nutrients in soil; damaging sensitive forests and farm crops; and affecting the diversity of ecosystems. (EPA)
  • Particle pollution can stain and damage stone and other materials, including culturally important objects such as statues and monuments. (EPA)

What local (city and state) policies are in place to regulate and/or prevent this toxin?

PM2.5

  • Annual primary standard of 12 micrograms per cubic meter (mcg/m3)
    • Annual Mean, averaged over 3 years (EPA)
  • Annual secondary standard of 15 micrograms per cubic meter (mcg/m3)
    • Annual Mean, averaged over 3 years (EPA)
  • 24-hour primary and secondary standard of 35 mcg/m3
    • 98th percentile, averaged over 3 years (EPA)

PM10

  • 24-hour primary and secondary standard of 150 mcg/m3
    • Not to be exceeded more than once per year on average over 3 years (EPA)

Sources

 

Sulfur Dioxide

What is it?

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is one of a group of highly reactive gasses known as “oxides of sulfur.” (EPA)

Where is it found?

The largest sources of SO2 emissions are from fossil fuel combustion at power plants (73%) and other industrial facilities (20%). Smaller sources of SO2 emissions include industrial processes such as extracting metal from ore, and the burning of high sulfur containing fuels by locomotives, large ships, and non-road equipment. (EPA)

  • Illinois Sulfur dioxide emissions by source sector [short tons] (2011) (EPA) http://1.usa.gov/1oWAutz
    • Fuel Combustion (255,615 total emissions)
    • Industrial Processes (25,329 total emissions)
    • Mobile (3,253 total emissions)
    • Miscellaneous (3,052 total emissions)
    • Fires (892 total emissions)
    • Solvent (24 total emissions)
  • Cook County Sulfur Dioxide emissions by source sector [short tons] (2011) (EPA) http://1.usa.gov/1oWAutz
    • Fuel Combustion (13,222 total emissions)
    • Industrial Processes (1,732 total emissions)
    • Mobile (1,218 total emissions)
    • Miscellaneous (704 total emissions)
    • Fires (11 total emissions)
    • Solvent (1 total emissions)

How does it affect health?

Current scientific evidence links short-term exposures to SO2, ranging from 5 minutes to 24 hours, with an array of adverse respiratory effects including bronchoconstriction and increased asthma symptoms. These effects are particularly important for asthmatics at elevated ventilation rates (e.g. while exercising or playing) (EPA)

SOx can react with other compounds in the atmosphere to form small particles. These particles penetrate deeply into sensitive parts of the lungs and can cause or worsen respiratory disease, such as emphysema and bronchitis, and can aggravate existing heart disease, leading to increased hospital admissions and premature death. (EPA)

What local (city and state) policies are in place to regulate and/or prevent this toxin?

1-hour primary standard of 75 parts per billion (ppb) (EPA)

  • 99th percentile of 1-hour daily maximum concentrations, averaged over 3 years

3-hour secondary standard of 0.5 parts per million (ppm) (EPA)

  • Not to be exceeded more than once per year

What interventions are effective?

Emissions that lead to high concentrations of SO2 generally also lead to the formation of other Sox. Control measures that reduce SO2 can generally be expected to reduce people’s exposures to all gaseous SOx. This may have the important co-benefit of reducing the formation of fine sulfate particles, which pose significant public health threats. (EPA)

Sources